(1) “Enlightened absolutism” was a political theory that emerged during the 18th century in Europe, particularly associated with rulers such as Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria. It advocated for monarchs to embrace Enlightenment ideas of rationality, progress, and tolerance while maintaining absolute authority over their…

(1) The French materialists of the 18th century, such as Denis Diderot, Baron d’Holbach, and Julien Offray de La Mettrie, held a philosophical stance that emphasized the primacy of matter over mind. They believed that all phenomena, including human thought and behavior, could be explained through the laws of nature and physical processes, without recourse…

(1) What was the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian view of the universe, and how did Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton undermine it and institute an alternative? The Ptolemaic-Aristotelian view held that Earth was at the center of the universe, with celestial bodies moving in perfect circular orbits around it. Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton challenged this: Copernicus proposed…

(1) According to your reading and the examples in the slides, what are some of the characteristic features of (a) Mannerism and (b) the Baroque? (A) Mannerism art depicted paintings with more asymmetrical points of view, more exaggeration on lighting, and introduced slight signs of movement. (B) Baroque art took Mannerism’s introduction to movement and…

(1) Mercantilism emphasized national wealth through a positive balance of trade, accumulation of precious metals, and state intervention in the economy to boost exports and limit imports. (2) Wars involving France in the latter half of the seventeenth century were driven by power struggles, territorial disputes, and religious conflicts, resulting in the Treaty of Westphalia…

(1) Cardinal Richelieu’s primary aims were to centralize royal power in France, strengthen the monarchy, and diminish the influence of both internal and external threats. (2) Factors contributing to the decline of Spain included economic troubles, military overextension, inefficiency, and a rigid social structure. (3) Constitutionalism refers to a system of government where a constitution…

(1) What was English life like under Oliver Cromwell? Oliver Cromwell was an English statesman, politician, and soldier. After he reigned victorious in the English Civil War, he had two objectives for the growing power that was England: to restore order, and to foster piety and morality. Being a Catholic and Puritan, Oliver stated that…

How would you describe the condition of the Catholic Church on the eve of the Protestant Reformation? What were the Ninety-Five Theses about? What was the basic message of Luther’s complaint?

(1) The English Reformation, initiated by King Henry VIII in the 16th century, was primarily driven by political and personal reasons, with the king seeking an annulment from his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. This led to the establishment of the Church of England and a break from the authority of the Pope while maintaining…