Explain Luther’s main points in the selection you read from On the Freedom of a Christians? Luther’s central points in “On the Freedom of a Christian” revolve around the paradoxical nature of Christian freedom: the believer is both free and a servant simultaneously. He emphasizes that faith, not works, is the means to salvation, yet this…

1. What were the causes and consequences of the Spanish revolt that occurred after Charles left to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor? – The Spanish revolt sparked by Charles V’s departure for his Holy Roman Emperor coronation in 1519 was driven by grievances over heavy taxation, social inequality, and resentment towards foreign advisors. The consequences…

Just-war theory encompasses a set of ethical principles governing the use of military force, seeking to justify and regulate war in specific circumstances. The main principles revolve around jus ad bellum (justice before war) and jus in bello (justice during war). Under jus ad bellum, a just war must have a just cause, usually involving…

Thomas Aquinas, drawing heavily from Aristotle’s philosophy, presents a reasoned argument for the existence of God through the concepts of potency and act. Aquinas posits that in the natural world, things exhibit potentiality (potency) and actuality (act) – the potential to change and the state of actualized existence, respectively. He observes that these changes and…

The Fourth Crusade, which took place from 1202 to 1204, was marked by a series of dramatic and unexpected turns. Initially intended to recapture Jerusalem from Muslim control, the Crusade deviated from its original objective due to a series of political and financial complications. The Crusaders, unable to pay the Venetians for transportation, agreed to…

One common misconception about the Crusades is that they were solely driven by religious fanaticism and a desire to convert others to Christianity. While religious motivations played a significant role, the Crusades were also influenced by political, economic, and territorial ambitions. The Crusades were complex military campaigns that involved various actors with diverse motivations, including…

Philip II Augustus, reigning from 1180 to 1223, was a highly significant figure in French history. Under his reign, he transformed the Capetian kingdom into a powerful centralized monarchy, greatly expanding its territories and establishing the foundation for modern France. Philip’s military campaigns were remarkably successful, as he secured numerous strategic victories against rival nobles,…

The Great Schism, also known as the East-West Schism, was a significant event in Christian history that occurred in 1054 and resulted in the permanent division of the Christian Church into the Western Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. The primary factor that brought it on was a combination of religious, cultural, and…

An indulgence is a term historically used in the context of the Roman Catholic Church to refer to the remission of the temporal punishment for sins, either for oneself or for a deceased person. It was believed that through acts of piety, such as prayer, fasting, or charitable deeds, individuals could receive indulgences as a…

(1) What were the problems besetting the Church in the tenth and eleventh centuries? What was “moderate reform”? During the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Church faced issues such as simony, lay investiture, clerical marriage and celibacy. “Moderate Reform”, installed by Pope Leo IX, was an attempt at silencing and dealing with these impediments. The…